I thought this would be a fairly straightforward individual to research and write about. But no, talk about a rabbit hole. Have you ever known someone that makes you ask, “They did what?” or “They’re where?” or “What are they up to now?” If so, then you’ll recognize the type in this installment of People and Plants.
Friedrich/Frederick Adolph Wislizenus was a German-born American medical doctor, explorer and botanist. The name Wislizenus traces its etymological roots back to Poland, specifically the town of Wislicza. Friedrich A. Wislizenus is known for his printed recollections of travels to New Mexico territory and northern Mexico. He was born in Königsee, Germany on May 21, 1810, the youngest of three. The children were orphaned very young and a maternal uncle took them in. After completing “high school” at the Rudolstadt Gymnasium, Friedrich continued his studies at the Universities of Jena, Goettingen and Würzburg. In April 1833 he took a break from his schoolwork by actively participating in a revolutionary uprising against the existing German government. (Another participant of this event was Ferdinand Lindheimer.) The expected groundswell of support from the citizenry didn’t happen while a strong police presence did. In response Friedrich suddenly decided he should leave town.
He wound up in Zürich, Switzerland where he matriculated at the University of Zürich. His studies again suffered a brief interruption when he joined a movement to free Italy from monarchical rule. The expedition was disarmed by Swiss troops before reaching the border. There was nothing for our Friedrich to do but go back to the college from which he graduated in 1834 with high honors in Medicine. Thereafter he decided to move to Paris to work but found no opportunities, so in the fall of 1834 he sailed for New York to hopefully establish himself in his profession. By 1837 he had journeyed to Mascoutah, Illinois on the outskirts of St. Louis and was practicing his trade. Finding the practise of a country doctor’s life dull, monotonous, and lacking in remuneration, he relocated to St. Louis in 1839.
Before settling down to resume his medical career Friedrich decided to make an extended journey into the farthest West. Scraping together his meager savings, he left the banks of the Mississippi in the spring of 1839 as a member of one of the annual expeditions of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. His travels lead him into the far Northwest to the Wind River Mountains and then over the Rockies. Friedrich eventually reached Fort Hall on the Snake River, near the present site of Pocatello, Idaho, which at the time was the Southernmost trading post of the English who still held Oregon Territory in I839. That’s a lot of ground to cover in six months.
From Ft. Hall he intended to cross the Sierra Nevadas and wander into California. But this dream was shattered for the lack of a competent guide. So he ventured back along the banks of the Arkansas River to the Missouri border. This voyage proved to be quite an adventure due to the inability of finding facilities, supplies, and the lack of equipment. He finally reached St. Louis in 1840. His record of this journey of almost six months duration was first printed in German in 1840. His son later translated it into English and published it along with a biographical sketch in I9I2. Its observations on the flora and fauna are quite detailed and the Linneaus binomial scientific designations are often included. Topography and geologic findings are also noted along with meteorological reports.
Friedrich resumed his medical practice and soon became involved in various civic activities. He was a regular attendant at the Western Academy of Natural Sciences where he found a kindred spirit in Dr. George Engelmann. The two were to become life long friends to the extent of taking care of the other’s patients when one of them was out of town. In 1846, finding he could no longer ignore his “itchy feet,” he joined a merchant expedition to Santa Fe in New Mexico Territory. With a goal in mind and the necessary instruments in a horse-drawn wagon, he and an assistant intended to gather information concerning a part of the continent about which little was known.
Upon reaching Santa Fe the intrepid band found the headlines and town chatter were full of news of the Mexican-American War. Despite the situation the group determined to travel south, cross the border, and make it to the state of Chihuahua by September, which they did. Immediately upon reaching their destination the entire company was imprisoned. Not being a man to waste an opportunity, Friedrich put the several months in a secluded mountain village to good use. The enforced stay resulted in collection of notes, observations and sketches concerning the flora, fauna, topography, and weather of northern Mexico. Finally in the spring of 1847 the prisoners were freed by Colonel Alexander Doniphan. Friedrich accepted Colonel Doniphan’s offer of a temporary appointment as surgeon in the U. S. Army and continued with the soldiery to the mouth of the Rio Grande. He then returned to St. Louis via New Orleans before 1847 had ended.
Due to the efforts of Senator Thomas H. Benton, whom he’d become acquainted with, Wislizenus was summoned to Washington, D.C., and requested to publish his recollections, Memoir of a Tour to Northern Mexico in 1846 and 1847 by A. Wislizenus, M.D. This volume corrected many erroneous views of the western country and provided detailed descriptions (with maps and sketches) of the lands near the Rio Grande. The Senate ordered printing of 5,000 copies, which was a lot for the time, for distribution.
Among the trophies brought from his travels were many new plants, both as samples and sketches. These were later studied by his good friend and colleague Dr. George Engelmann who named many of the specimens after Wislizenus. Dr. Wislizenus also has a lizard named after him. The animal was first documented by Friedrich in Santa Fe, New Mexico Territory.
The next several years saw Friedrich getting married, becoming a father and traveling the world, including Turkey, a visit to his hometown, Panama and finally getting to visit the West Coast of America. He returned to St. Louis in 1852 and spent the rest of his life there. He pursued scientific and civic interests, being one of the founders of the St. Louis Academy of Science and the Missouri Historical Society. He continued to indulge his love of meteorology and botany as long as his failing eyesight would allow. He died in September 1889 and he and his wife are buried on their estate near Kimmswick, Missouri on a high bluff overlooking the Mississippi River.
To see list of plants attributed to Dr. Wislizenus go here: https://tropicos.org/specimen/Search and type Wislizenus in the Senior Collector box and click on Search.
If you find yourself singing “How Dry I Am” these days, you might be under the influence of a large, stationary area of high atmospheric pressure. This past month, most of the eastern United States has been trapped in this pattern, with warm temperatures, clear skies, and no rain at all for most of the past month. In fact, many cities are on the verge of setting new records for low or no precipitation for the month of October, and some may even break records for the driest month ever. In this post, I will discuss what high pressure is, how it affects precipitation and health, and what impacts these may have on your gardens.
How does atmospheric pressure relate to precipitation?
As the air moves into the center of low pressure, it meets in the middle and rises up, since it cannot go down into the earth. Rising air cools off as the pressure decreases and eventually the water vapor in the air condenses and forms clouds and sometimes precipitation. In the middle of high pressure areas, the air sinks, leading to air that is heating up and evaporating any clouds that might have formed elsewhere. Skies may be bright blue due to the lack of water vapor in the descending air. A complete circulation is formed when air at the surface of the high moves out away from the center towards areas of low pressure, then rises up and spreads out away from the surface low, moving into the top of the high pressure column and sinking towards the surface. You can see this schematically in the diagram below.
When an area of high pressure persists over an area for a long time, the sinking air leads to persistent sunny skies and low humidity, making it very difficult for clouds and rain to form. In summer, these long-lasting high pressure centers can lead to heat domes and oppressive and dangerous conditions such as occurred in the Pacific Northwest a few years ago. In the winter, high pressure is often associated with cold outbreaks of frigid, dry and dense air moving south from the Arctic (in the Northern Hemisphere). Those conditions lead to freezes caused by temperatures that fall to 32 F (0 C) or lower due to low winds and no clouds to trap the heat near the surface.
This fall has been a textbook case of a strong high pressure that has parked over the eastern half of the United States, causing day after day of warm and sunny weather and almost no rain at all. I often think that a drought is just too many days in a row of nice weather (assuming you prefer sunshine, which not everyone does). Fall is the time of year when we tend to have the longest periods of dry weather in the Southeast, but the dry spell does not usually last as long as it has done this year. If you enjoy warm and quiet weather (or sometimes cooler and less humid weather if some dry air has moved in from the north), fall is the time for you to really enjoy your garden before it shuts down for the winter. The dry conditions are good for many farmers too, because the harvest of commodity crops like cotton are easier when the plants dry up. Grape growers also appreciate the dry conditions because it concentrates the sugar in the grapes, leading to more tasty wines. Large-scale areas of high pressure around 30 degrees North and South latitudes are related to the formation of deserts like the Sahara and the Desert Southwest in the United States because the sinking air prevents the occurrence of precipitation, although it can rain there too when the monsoon blows moist air into the region and heat makes it rise to form clouds and rain.
How does high pressure relate to health?
Air pressure variations can lead to health issues in some people. Most people seem to be affected by low pressure, which can cause sinuses and ears to hurt and bother some people’s joints. Changes from high to low pressure associated with the movement of cold fronts also bother many people with arthritis and can cause headaches in some sensitive people. In high pressure areas, most people feel more alive and active. It is hard to know how much of that is due to the pressure and how much is due to the persistent sunshine and lack of rain, though. Interestingly, there is some evidence that more women give birth when the air pressure is low, especially when there is a big change due to an incoming tropical cyclone.
Sinuses, inversions and trapping of
aerosols
Air quality also suffers under high pressure because the sinking air traps pollutants near the surface of the earth. This can include soot, smog, and even pollen. The temperature of the air above the surface often rises with height before cooling off as you go higher in the atmosphere. We call this an inversion because we normally expect temperature to decrease as you rise away from the earth, and instead it rises over a layer near the ground before cooling off above that layer. Farmers spraying some herbicides are not allowed to spray when there is an inversion because it can lead to concentration of the chemical near the ground and drift into neighbors’ fields, causing damage to the plants there. This can also happen in home gardens if you have a neighbor that uses a lot of chemical sprays in his or her yard. In the worst cases, a strong and persistent inversion can lead to dangerous levels of pollutants that can cause harm to people with lung conditions like asthma. Smoke from wildfires can also get trapped under the inversion, adding to the pollutant load.
How you can plan for high pressure
impacts
If you know that high pressure is forecast for your area, you can use that information to plan for the kind of weather you are likely to experience while it is in place. If it persists over the area, it will be dry and you may have to increase your watering. Plants may get dustier and could be affected by trapped pollution and chemical treatments, leading to spotting or discoloration of the plants and eventually death as the pollutants affect the soil. If you need to work outdoors during persistent high pressure, make sure you monitor the air quality levels so you do not irritate your lungs or dry them out in the low humidity of the sinking air.
Enjoy the days of high pressure as you work in your gardens in the sunny conditions. Low pressure will soon come and bring rain and clouds. We need both to keep our gardens and our gardeners happy!
While the onset of autumnal leaf color change reminds us that winter is coming, there are many other reasons why leaves turn red. Knowing why and how leaves turn red is key in accurate diagnosis.
These are examples of leaf reddening misdiagnosed as phosphorus deficiency:
These leaves are not phosphorus deficient, either.
Leaf reddening here is due to solar damage (leaf scorch)
Congratulations to accurate diagnosticians at UCANR! This is indeed phophate deficiency. Damage is not localized as in the previous images.
Lack of sufficient phosphate causes overall leaf reddening among other symptoms.
Here are some other underlying causes behind leaf reddening.
This Cornus kousa (dogwood) is sitting in a perched water table. Poor soil drainage is causing anthocyanins to accumulate at the margins of the leaves.Leaf reddening on a Cornus spp. (dogwood) suffering from anthracnose
If you’re interested in learning more about how and why leaves turn read, be sure to download my most recent factsheet, appropriately titled “Why do leaves turn red?” ] It’s peer-reviewed and relevant to any part of the world.
For those of us in the Southeastern United States, this past week has been a whirlwind of preparation for Hurricane Helene, followed by the terrifying storm itself and now, for some people, months of clean-up and houses, yards, and gardens that may never be the same. My post this week (I did not get to it last week because of the impending storm) will be about how to prepare for an extreme weather event, including where to find accurate and timely information on weather forecasts and how to prepare your house and garden for the extreme weather you may suffer. While we just went through a hurricane, this could apply equally to an ice storm or blizzard, derecho, tornado, or any rapidly occurring weather event. No matter where you live, you will experience extreme weather at some point and need to be ready for it. My post from last month, https://gardenprofessors.com/how-would-your-garden-handle-a-12-inch-rainfall/, was surprisingly prescient, since Helene also brought extreme rainfall to the Southeast, particularly to western North Carolina and Virginia and to the area around Atlanta, GA. Our hearts go out to all of the people affected by Helene and other serious weather disasters.
Hurricane Helene and Tropical Storm John together on September 25, 2024. Source: NASA.
Preparing your property and garden for damaging wind and
rain conditions
The best way to deal with an extreme weather event is to
prepare for it well ahead of time. I used to play a game with my son when he
was young: “Name all the ways that something could go wrong (in his case, what
could make a train or airplane crash).” It is a surprisingly effective way to
make you think about possible dangers that might lurk around your home if a
severe weather event occurs and what you might have to do to minimize them. If
you can identify the risks of an event, then you can address them before the
roof starts to blow off and the trees start falling.
Storm damage from Ophelia, Dublin, Ireland, October 2017. Source: William Murphy, Commons Wikimedia.
The first step is to look
around the outside of your house for any potential threats to your property
that could become safety issues in strong winds or heavy rains. If you have
trees, are they healthy? Are there any low-lying or diseased branches that
could come loose in a strong wind and hit your house or car? Could a 50-mph
wind from the southwest (or whatever direction your storms usually come from)
blow them into your windows or onto your roof? Are there any areas on the
outside of your house that are in poor repair and in danger of failing in a
storm such as a loose railing or fence? If you like decorative items in your
garden like garden gnomes or shiny balls, can you remove them before a storm
approaches so that they don’t become wind-borne missiles? You should also
consider potential areas where erosion might be enhanced by the ground cover or
slope and determine if there are ways to slow the flow of water to preserve
your soil and garden design.
Once you identify potential problems in your yard, you can repair them before a storm comes. But you should also make sure that you have adequate insurance coverage and that you document what you have before a storm hits with an inventory or video recording. You might also need special insurance to cover extreme events; I read today that less than 1% of all residents of western North Carolina had flood insurance, even though many of them live in flood-prone areas. Floods are not covered by most homeowners insurance policies. Of course, there could be many reasons for not buying it, including high costs, but if an extreme event occurs, you are going to wish you had it.
Cabbage field eroded by Helene rainfall.
Identifying location concerns that could affect your safety
No matter where you live, there are bound to be risks due to the location of your property. If you live on top of a hill, you are prone to experience more lightning and higher winds and potentially more snow since the temperatures at higher elevations are generally lower. If you live in a river valley, your property and gardens would be more vulnerable to floods but also to freezes since cold air drains downslope to low-lying areas. When you decide where to live, consider the land the house and garden are on and also how you get there, whether you have to cross rivers or go through areas that are heavily wooded, which could be a problem in high winds but also potentially in a wildfire. Where you get your water could also be a concern if your well has an electric pump and power is likely to go out.
Rainy day horses. Source: Sini Merikallio, Commons Wikimedia.
Get ready to go or stay
Preparing for an extreme event means planning for providing
food, shelter, and water for your family and pets if you plan to stay and
planning for an evacuation if it is not safe to stay. There is a lot of
information out there about this planning process and I am not going to list
everything here but you will find some links at the end of this blog that you
may find helpful. As I write this almost a week after Helene came through the
Southeast, there are many people here whose power is still out and who may not
be able to travel because of all the trees and power lines that are down in
their neighborhood and who have no access to clean water because the water
plants were destroyed or the electric pumps on their wells no longer work. It
usually takes about 72 hours for outside help to start getting supplies into affected
areas, so you need to plan for several days and perhaps much longer to provide
everything you need. Eventually, help will come from a variety of federal,
state, and local agencies and non-profits but often the first help comes from a
neighbor with a chain saw or extra water. If you evacuate, you will need a plan
to get out safely, including more than one possible evacuation route, plenty of
gas for your car, copies of important documents, and a place to go, which may
include housing for pets or livestock.
Getting the weather information you need to make good
decisions
Once you have your plan for severe weather, you need to
monitor the situation for potentially threatening situations. A smartphone weather app
is an easy way to get your daily weather for regular planning purposes but is
not adequate for situations when weather might
be changing rapidly since the apps are often updated only once or twice a
day. In severe weather, an old forecast is a bad forecast because things may be
quickly changing and you need the latest information.
Hourly forecast graph from the National Weather Service.
There are a number of apps and websites that you can use to monitor extreme weather events, including the National Weather Service local forecasts for frequently updated information, watches for potential severe weather, and warnings for when it is spotted. The National Hurricane Center is the official source of hurricane and tropical storm warnings and their maps are updated every three hours when a storm is present. Beware apocalyptic posts on social media that often show a single worst-case model run that has practically no chance of occurrence just to gain attention and clicks. Stick to expert guidance from trusted sources. You can also get information on what local conditions you might experience and the timing of wind and rain using the hourly weather forecast from the National Weather Service, although in a rapidly changing extreme weather event even these may not change quick enough to capture the evolution of the storm. Weather radios and some smartphone apps that are designed can provide information about watches and warnings based on your location. If you live in an area that is prone to flooding or severe weather or is in a floodplain or near the coast of the ocean, then you should pay careful attention to rain in the area upstream of you are or the likely storm surge from a tropical cyclone. Be prepared to evacuate if emergency managers ask you to.
Planning ahead can save lives
Extreme weather is something that we all need to plan for
but that planning often falls by the wayside because of other pressing tasks.
But if you can take the time to do some
simple advance planning and be prepared to act when the event starts, you
can save yourself a lot of work later on when the clean-up begins and may save
your houses and gardens. You may even save your family from serious
consequences! I hope that it never becomes an issue for you, but I also know
that many communities, businesses, farms, and families are dealing with the
consequences of extreme weather now. Thanks to help from many people, they are
starting to rebuild their lives, but it will be a long time before things get
back to normal and for some, it may never be the same.
Fallen Tree by Alexandre Calame, 1839-1845, oil on paper on canvas – National Gallery of Art, Washington. Source: Commons Wikimedia.
I often feel slightly nauseous after a day of debunking misinformation online, in emails, and in person. Others who selflessly give their time and energy to the same efforts probably feel the same. An antidote counteracts poison; in a very real sense, those of us who guide gardeners through the six circles of horticultural hell are routinely exposed to the mind-numbing dregs of lazy thinking.
Not exactly Dante’s Inferno, but this ‘Inferno’ coleus is certainly ablaze. Courtesy of The Blade.
What are the six circles of horticultural hell, you may ask?
After playing with word lists and acronyms I have come up with the ABSURD approach,
as in “don’t be ABSURD with your gardening information.”
This is a first draft of ABSURDity and I imagine it might get tweaked and shaped a bit. But it’s a good mnemonic device for educators to consider using, right along with the CRAP test.
A = anecdotal. Anecdotal evidence is simply one person’s observations that are not supported with scientific evidence. Reporting that your roses grew better when you used compost tea is an anecdote. Anecdotes are often collected by advertisers and called “testimonials” which sounds vaguely legal and therefore more reliable.
B = bogus. Bogus information is verifiably false; factual evidence exists to disprove it. Claiming that water droplets will scorch leaves on hot days is bogus.
There are lots of photos of water drops on leaves, but none that show scorching. Courtesy of pixabay.com.
S = scam. Scammy sources of information exist to sell stuff. Websites selling seeds for nonexistent flowers whose pictures are generated by AI are scammy.
A scam is born…
U = useless. Useless information promotes something that has no effect. Adding eggshells to gardens for any purpose is useless.
At least this photo is from a website with good information! Courtesy of MSU Extension.
R = ridiculous. Ridiculous recommendations defy even common sense. Placing plastic forks into the soil to discourage animals from digging is ridiculous.
Salad fork takes on a whole new meaning.
D = dangerous. Dangerous products and practices can injure people, pets, and the environment. Putting mothballs in your landscape to discourage nuisance wildlife is dangerous.
You can find many more examples of ABSURDities in our 15 years of blog archives. Simply type in the word you are looking for and have fun diving down the (mothball-free) rabbit holes!
Type in a word, or part of a word, to find archived blog posts to explore.
Early in August, Hurricane Debby made landfall in the Big Bend of Florida’s Gulf Coast, crossed into Georgia east of Valdosta, and moved leisurely northeast. The remains of Debby crossed the coast, briefly moved over the Atlantic Ocean before turning northwest and making another landfall northeast of Charleston then headed north into New England. While the winds decreased quickly once Debby made landfall, it dropped huge amounts of rain along its path. The highest official rainfall amounts topped 12 inches, but I heard of some unofficial measurements of 20 inches in a few isolated locations. Pictures of erosion in peanut fields and standing water in cotton stands filled my inbox, and it made me wonder how a garden would cope with so much precipitation in such a short period of time. I want to take a few minutes today to discuss it.
Initial estimate of rain from Hurricane Debby, August 8, 2024.
What damage does the rain do when it hits the ground?
When the falling raindrops hit leaves, they can cause damage
to the plants. The biggest raindrops are heavy and falling fast so they can
break off or damage the foliage, although not as much as hail does. We see this
especially in fall when the leaves are loosely attached to the branches after
they start to change color and die. A
heavy rain (or snow if you live in a colder area) can remove a lot of leaves in
a short time, making the fall colors muted or non-existent as the leaves
are washed to the ground.
When the rain hits bare ground it can cause soil particles and microbes to splash upward. Farmers know that rainy weather can lead to more diseases because of the enhanced transmission of fungal spores and other pathogens up onto the crops. Of course, the wet soils can also provide a lot of moisture in the air around the plants that can fuel the development of fungal diseases like powdery mildew, especially when plants are close together with little ventilation by the wind. Mulch may be able to help reduce the transmission of spores but creates a moist environment around the roots of the plants that can cause problems if it keeps too much water in the ground. One advantage of arborist wood chips is that the wood absorbs moisture and releases it later and the pores between wood chips are large and can store a lot of water before it runs off. It can also preserve soil moisture between rain events and it can reduce the impact of raindrops on the soil surface, limiting nutrient loss and splashing.
Erosion of peanut field in Screven County, GA, following Hurricane Debby, GA Peanut Growers.
Where does the rain go when it hits the ground?
Once rain hits the ground, some of it sinks into the ground (infiltration) while the rest might either run off if there is a slope or stand in a puddle if there is a low-lying or flat area. The rate at which water can enter the soil depends on the characteristics of the soil. If it is gravel or coarse sand, it can take in as much as 0.8 inches of water per hour. Sandy loams can take in 0.4 to 0.8 inches per hour, loams 0.2 to 0.4 inches per hour, and clay soils less than 0.2 inches per hour. The rain can also compact the soil, making the movement of oxygen around the roots more restricted. The water that does not sink into the soils will either sit at the place the rain has fallen or will move downhill under the force of gravity. Flowing water will often carry a lot of soil and debris with it, so the movement of topsoil and nutrients like nitrogen from field to stream can cause problems for both environments. Silt from the floodwaters can cause loss of oxygen in streams and murky conditions affecting the stream health or the silt can be deposited in low-lying areas. In the biggest floods, large deposits of sand can ruin fertile bottomlands by covering healthy soil with thick deposits of unproductive silt and sand. The erosion can also dig deep trenches through gardens and farm fields, leading to loss of plants and making the movement of farm equipment across that rutted land difficult especially since it can also get bogged down in the mud.
If the water pools in a low-lying area the soil can become saturated for a long time. This causes damage to the plants standing in the water because without oxygen, the roots die. In the short term the loss of oxygen can cause the plants to wilt. If it lasts for a long time it is likely to lead to the death of the plants in low-lying areas. In Hurricane Debby, some farmers are starting to see flooded cotton plants become reddish and stop growing, reducing the eventual yield of the crop. The dying roots can also give off ethylene gas, hastening the ripening of crops like tobacco and shortening the time that farmers have to harvest it before it rots. Farmers are often told to harvest crops that grew in flooded areas separately from upland crops because the negative impacts of oxygen deprivation can stunt plants, ruining their yields and increasing the likelihood of aflatoxin in peanuts or other toxins which can decimate the value of the crop.
Partially flooded watermelon field, B. King, The South Carolina Grower.
What can gardeners do to prepare their gardens for heavy
rains?
In the future, the frequency of heavy rains is expected to increase in the United States as well as other parts of the world because of more water vapor in the atmosphere as the planet warms. What can gardeners do to make sure their gardens can withstand heavy rain events? The first thing to do is to understand what type of soil you have and how much water it can absorb. If you have sandy soil, heavy rain will have less of an effect than clay soil but it might mean you have to water a lot more often. In Debby, some areas that received 12 inches of rainfall needed irrigation less than a week after the storm moved through because the sandy soil of the coastal plain just does not hold much water. The next thing you should consider is the local topography of your garden. Are there areas that are natural channels for water? Make sure those areas are lined with material and plants that can withstand water and reduce erosion. If you have low-lying areas, use those to plant rain gardens with plants that are more adapted to wet conditions.
Rain is a necessary part of gardening unless you live in a
desert and provide your own water to your gardens, but it can cause a lot of
damage if the water is not managed carefully. Take the time to study your garden
and understand where the water will flow and your garden will be much more
likely to take a 12-inch rainfall in stride with minimal damage. It might even
thrive!
Landscape of leaves after rain, Arushan, Commons Wikimedia.
A polycultural landscape mixing vineyards and annual crops with woody hedgerows and trees in Charente, France. Photo courtesy of JLPC through Wikimedia.
As gardeners, we often assign human characteristics to our plants as a way of feeling more connected to them. We talk about their preferences and dislikes for certain environmental conditions and even for each other. The idea that plants have feelings has caused many to believe that plants are sentient and capable of making deliberate choices. (We’ve discussed plant sentience in previous posts that you can see here, here, here, and here.)
Tree sentience! Artistic rendition thanks to Sylvia Thompson-Hacker.
I could spend my time debunking all the books, websites, and social media accounts that promote the pseudoscientific side of companion planting. But this popularized version is a horticultural zombie: it never dies. Instead, I’d rather discuss the ways that plants can change their environment physically, chemically, and biologically – which can influence the survival of other plants. The table below summarizes these methods.
I encourage you to download and read my recently published Extension manual – it’s free and peer-reviewed. In addition to providing solid scientific advice, it will help you understand why the classic example of companion planting – The Three Sisters – may be of historic and cultural interest but is unlikely to benefit plant productivity or soil quality.
Three Sisters Garden next to the Harry and Jeannette Ayer House, Onamia, Minnesota. Photo courtesy of Wikimedia.
Below are some evidence-based companion planting strategies for your gardens and landscapes. More are also available in the Extension manual linked above.
Perennial companion plants will take a year or two to establish. Annual companion plants should be used if immediate benefits are desired.
If you are growing perennial crops, avoid using annual companion plants that require yearly soil disruption. Crop growth and yield can be negatively affected.
Use living mulches on pathways, between rows in vegetable gardens and orchards, and other locations that are not densely planted to reduce competition. Living mulches play a crucial role in protecting soil from erosion as well as biological and chemical degradation, and this improvement may outweigh any drawbacks from competition.
To reduce competition among desirable plants, choose species whose roots are less likely to interfere with one another. Intersperse large taproot vegetables like carrots and radishes with those whose root systems are shallow and widespread, like corn, onions, and lettuces.
Avoid invasive species and aggressive native plants. They will be overly competitive for resources like sunlight, resulting in reduced growth and vigor of other species.
A well-chosen organic mulch will improve plant growth and productivity. A woody organic mulch, such as arborist wood chips, will enhance mycorrhizal populations, improve overall soil health, and control weeds. Arborist wood chip mulches also house predatory spiders and insects, such as ground beetles.
In vegetable gardens, try to intercrop different species so that individuals of the same species are as far apart as possible from each other. This will reduce the ability of pest insects to infest an entire crop.
Intercropping coconut and Tagetes erecta (marigold) in Kerala, India. Photo courtesy of Ezhuttukari through Wikimedia.
Earthworms have held a secure place in the hearts of many gardeners for quite some time. Charles Darwin himself was endlessly fascinated by these organisms (publishing an entire book about them in 1881) writing: “it may be doubted whether there are any other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world…”.
Recognized for their benefits to soils, including improvements in water infiltration, aeration, porosity, tilth, organic matter, beneficial microbes, and the list goes on, it is not difficult to see why. These positive impacts can be seen in home gardens and agricultural operations alike, with studies showing significant improvements in crop production correlated with the presence of earthworms. As such, terrestrial earthworms are often referred to as ‘ecosystem engineers’ due to their immense impact, and have been intentionally (and accidentally) introduced to previously worm-free areas. Many of these impacts and benefits are highlighted by Sjoerd Duiker and Richard Stehouwer’s earthworm article for Penn State Extension.
That being
said, we have also started to hear a lot more about “invasive earthworms”, “jumping
worms”, “stink worms”, – paired with statewide and regional campaigns
encouraging people to reduce human-caused introductions and spread of
non-native earthworm species in areas where they could cause significant harm
to natural ecosystems and major hassles for managed ecosystems as well.
With all kinds of variable information out there, I thought it would be fitting to elaborate on the topic of earthworms, with the hopes of educating myself (and fellow readers) on some of the history, science, and misconceptions on this pretty popular garden-related topic. Having personally worked in North American horticultural systems, much of this information will be tied to the trends that we observe here, however I will also share some resources at the end that will elaborate on earthworm trends outside of North America (for those interested in learning more about the topic).
Earthworm
Biology
Before we
get into the nitty gritty, let’s learn a bit more about earthworm biology. There
are thousands (an estimated 3000-7000) of earthworm species around the world,
and these can be found on every continent except Antarctica (because earthworms
cannot survive in permafrost or underneath glaciers). Most earthworm species
vary in size from 10 millimeters (0.39 inches) to over a foot (12-14 inches) in
length. There are even giant earthworms: such as the giant Oregon earthworm
that is 4.3 feet (1.3 meters in length), the Australian giant Gippsland
earthworms which can grow to 9.8 feet (~3 meters) in length, and the giant
African earthworm with the largest earthworm specimen ever recorded, measuring
up to a staggering 21 feet (6.7 meters) in length.
These
thousands of earthworm species can be divided into 3-main groups:
Compost and litter dwellers (Epigeic)
This group feeds on leaf/crop litter, and as such, can be found at the interface of litter and soil (around the soil surface). These earthworms are typically smaller in size than the other groups, do not consume large amounts of soil, are not as good at burrowing, and are also used in composting systems. Example: red wigglers (Eisenia fetida)
Topsoil dwellers (Endogeic)
Species in this group live within the top few inches of soil, subsisting on partially decomposed organic matter present within the soil. These earthworms create horizontal burrows, filling them with their excrement (after ingesting large quantities of soil). These species can be identified by their lack of skin pigmentation, appearing grey, blue, yellow, white or pink. Example: angle worms (Aporrectodea caliginosa)
Subsoil dwellers (Anecic)
This group can be found deep within the soil (up to 6 feet below the surface), living in permanent vertical burrows. They require plant residue on the soil surface in order to survive. They also ingest large quantities of soil, and deposit their excrement at the soil surface. Example: common nightcrawler (Lumbricus terrestris)
Earthworms
(Clitellata) are a class in the phylum of annelids (segmented worms). They can
be characterized by their clitellum (a reproductive band that secretes a fluid
to form a cocoon for their eggs). They have both male and female reproductive
organs, though they require another individual for mating (where their eggs are
fertilized by another’s sperm and vice versa). Depending on the species, they
can produce between 3 to 1000 cocoons (containing anywhere between 1 to 10
eggs) per year. A majority of this occurs in the spring or early summer.
Like many
organisms, environmental conditions and human management practices can have
significant impacts on their populations and activity. Moisture, temperature,
soil texture, pH, and availability of food are some of these environmental factors
that can have a considerable impact. Although excess moisture is not ideal,
earthworms can survive in high moisture conditions if oxygen availability in
the water is sufficient. In dry conditions, they can enter a temporary
hibernation stage (diapause), descend deeper into the soil, or even die (which
can reduce earthworm populations in many areas during the summer months and in prolonged
periods of drought).
Management
practices such as reduction in tilling frequency, soil amendments (such as
compost and manure), crop rotation, surface plant/crop residue, and use of certain
fertilizers and lime are often linked to favorable impacts on earthworm populations.
Whereas increased tillage, soil acidification, removal of surface crop/plant
residue, and the use of toxic products such as certain pesticides are associated
with a negative impact on earthworm populations and activity. (You can learn
more about these in the Penn
State Extension earthworm article).
History
of Earthworms in North America
There are
approximately 300 species of earthworms native to North America, and these are
primarily found in previously unglaciated areas (such as the Pacific Northwest,
South-Eastern U.S., Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean). In the rest of
the continent, most of our earthworm species were wiped out during the last ice
age either through direct glacial cover or frozen ground (even if it was quite
a distance away from the glaciers).
Since European colonization of North America several hundred years ago, earthworms of European origin were introduced and have now become widespread in many areas, including those that had been previously worm-free since the end of the last ice age (such as the mid-western and northeastern U.S.). According to a 2024 study by Mathieu et al., at least 70 non-native earthworm species have colonized North America, which measures up to be 23% of the continents known earthworm species. Many of the most ‘familiar’ and commonly seen earthworm species that you may have in your landscapes may be introduced earthworms like the infamous nightcrawlers (Lumbricus terrestris), often referred to as common earthworms, which are actually European natives. These, along with around several other very competitive earthworm species have become globally widespread and some of them are even considered invasive species in many regions.
You might
think, with the significant ecosystem services provided by these ecosystem
engineers, is the introduction of non-native earthworm species to previously
worm-free areas really that bad? The answer to this, is YES. Although
the impacts of many of these non-native earthworms have been considered positive
in agricultural (and home garden) situations, the impacts on natural ecosystems
can result in significant ecological impacts. Additionally, not very much
research has been conducted on long-term impacts of these organisms in
different ecosystems. Though these effects will vary by species and ecological
group, some earthworms have been associated with significant negative impacts to
ecosystem processes. This has included the reduction of understory litter,
impacted plant and fungal communities that are able to survive in these
landscapes, has been associated with an increase in soil erosion, and had
immeasurable impacts on many food webs. You can learn about the physical,
chemical, and ecosystem impacts in greater detail from
this publication by USDA’s Northern Forests Climate Hub.
Furthermore,
some of these larger and more competitive non-native earthworm species have the
potential to displace indigenous earthworm species which can often be more
sensitive to soil disturbance than their introduced counterparts. The establishment
of some of these non-native species around the globe can result in untold
impacts on native earthworm species worldwide.
This spread
followed by the immense ecosystem impacts that have and continue to occur have
been dubbed by some as “global worming”.
Common
Questions
Can (/should)
you introduce earthworms to your garden?
Whether you
have compacted soils, low organic matter, or any other reasons, you may be
tempted to consider trying to boost your local earthworm populations (in order
to reap all the benefits associated with them).
First of
all, you should never move around invasive species, nor introduce organisms that
you do not know very much about to a new landscape. Not only is it illegal in
many locations to intentionally introduce certain exotic species, it can also
be irresponsible. I think we all know and understand why this is a bad idea, so
I won’t go into too much detail.
Even if you
did become an expert in earthworm identification, and could differentiate
between native vs. non-native species (and know about the established
earthworms in your landscape), it still may not be a great idea to introduce
earthworms to a new location (especially if you reside in one of these
historically worm-free areas). We know that introductions and releases of
organisms to new sites can have a variety of negative consequences (even if
they may be indigenous to the area or already well-established) [many of these were
mentioned in my Blog
Post on Releasing Lady Beetles and Mantids for pest control in home gardens].
Even if you did manage to introduce them, they may not survive long-term nor stick around. That being said, good gardening practices may naturally attract earthworms to your gardens (without the need and potential negative impacts of introducing them yourself). So continue working on being an ecologically-responsible gardener, and enjoy the many benefits of this.
What
about earthworms in my compost?
Because of
earthworms’ ability to breakdown plant residues and convert them into valuable
soil amendments rich in organic matter, composting using earthworms
(vermicomposting) has become fairly widespread. These worm composting systems
rely on earthworms such as the European red wigglers (Eisenia fetida),
which are a common commercially available species. Although composting with
earthworms is a well-established tool for gardeners, it is important to be a
responsible vermicomposter to limit any unintended negative effects.
The contents of an indoor worm bin being assembled by gardeners at a workshop. Photo: Abi Saeed
In areas where you do not know very much about your local earthworms and the ones that you are using in your compost (especially if you are located in previously worm-free regions), keep your worm bins contained, and do not introduce worms and cocoons in your gardens (especially if you live in proximity to natural areas). Strategies to accomplish this include creating a screen to separate your finished compost from your worms, inspecting it thoroughly for worms and cocoons and/or freezing your compost before you use it in your gardens.
Should we
be working on managing these non-native earthworms?
As we know
from countless examples and extensive previous experience, it is nearly
impossible to eradicate established non-native (especially invasive) species.
Due to the fact that many of these non-native earthworm species are widespread
as a result of human transport, there is little that we can do to remove them
from landscapes in which they currently thrive (especially without doing
significant harm to other organisms that share those ecosystems). What we can
do, however, is to limit the introduction and spread of non-native
earthworm species through responsible gardening/farming (not moving around
compost with earthworms or their cocoons to new sites), and recreation
practices (avoiding the transport of leaves, mulch, and other plant debris into
natural areas, and disposing of fishing bait appropriately).
We have a guest writer for this week’s GP blog post, Teresa Watkins! She’s a professional landscaper and garden consultant in Florida (her bio is at the end of the column). As a professional she has seen “landscaper results” that will astound, scare, shock, or otherwise perturb you to no end. She has graciously shared photos and input for this blog post.
We hope this will be a series highlighting what to watch for when hiring a landscape company. Most of the following examples will have a “Caveat Emptor” feel to them. Just sayin’.
GP disclaimer: If you’re bothered by anything in this blog post please do not hold it against Ms. Watkins. Blame the editor who may have taken some liberties with the captions depending on how frustrated they felt at the time.
Let’s get started.
Case #1. Your landscaper charges you to edge dirt.
Don’t pay for “fluff work;” always inspect the bill and the job. Don’t assume the crew sent to do the job knows what to do. It’s up to you to know what needs to be done in your landscape. Please, always be polite when talking with the crews. They’re just doing their job.
Case #2. Your landscaper cut your plants so low to the ground they die.
Beware of landscaping crews wielding hedge shears and loppers, or even weed whackers. Yes, we’ve seen those used for a job like this. Make sure crews understand when to prune and how much to remove. This applies to cutting back or shearing shrubs into cupcakes, “Ding-dongs,” or other snack food shapes. Continuous shearing leads to early plant decline due to excess interior growth and shading. And it’s ugly. Actually, if you have shrubs or hedges that have to be continually cut back perhaps it’s time to rethink that particular part of your landscape.
Case #3. Your landscaper continues to commit crepe murder.
Case #4. Your landscaper plants a shade species in full sun, or vice versa.
OK, we can see what they were going for here – a color pop. But please read the plant tag!Always review the proposed plant list and diagram, and ask questions. Don’t trust the crew to know which plant goes where. They’re human and can make mistakes. If you’re concerned about what they’re doing tell them to stop and call the company owner or whomever you talked to and explain the situation. Remember you’re in charge, it’s your money, but always be polite. …And those ferns look crowded for their mature size.
Well, they did follow the work order.
Case #5. Your landscaper insists on using herbicides for weed control along lawns, gardens and fence lines.
These photos show the accumulated effects of herbicide. There’s a three month’s difference between the photos; please note the continued plant death. Be sure crews are state certified pesticide applicators or have training in the application thereof (requirements vary by region). As the homeowner it is your responsibility to know what’s being sprayed.If you don’t want herbicides used then it’s up to you to specify that. If your requests are being ignored then it’s time to change companies. If the crew starts spraying against your wishes tell them to stop immediately. But be polite – they’re just doing their job.
Oops.
Our guest blogger, Teresa Watkins, is a landscape designer and owner of Sustainable Horticultural Environments. She creates unique, beautiful, and sustainable landscapes with her “gardening with soul” philosophy. Over 40,000 homeowners and professional landscapers have attended Teresa’s talks and programs. Teresa hosts Florida’s most popular syndicated radio garden show “Better Lawns and Gardens” Saturday mornings on WFLA-Orlando, iHeart, Spotify, Audioboom, iTunes, and on podcast. She enjoys traveling and leading garden tours, checking off incredible national and world gardens on her ‘bucket’ (pronounced ‘bouquet’) list. www.she-consulting.com
In my blog post last month, I mentioned the likelihood of having a very active Atlantic tropical season, especially because the ocean surface temperatures are so warm. But despite an early start to the season with the first three named storms (including Beryl, the earliest ever category 5 storm in the Atlantic Ocean), it’s been quiet for the last few weeks. The ocean temperatures continue to be very warm. What is preventing the development of tropical storms in such a warm environment? One of the main culprits now is Saharan dust that blows west off the African continent and affects the vertical structure of the atmosphere. This keeps tropical waves from developing the necessary circulation to strengthen into a powerful storm. In this post, we will discuss the impacts of the Saharan dust and how it is both good and bad for the environment.
The Sahara Desert covers most of the northern portion of the African continent. It’s the world’s largest source of wind-blown dust supplied to the ocean and adjacent land. It is one of the driest places on earth and is covered with sand and rocks but very little plant materials. This means the dust from the Sahara is mineral dust with low organic content. Seven elements (Ca, Mg, Al, Ti, Fe, K, and Na) account for 98% of the total analyzed inorganic burden. The dust particles are often very fine, so they can travel a long distance from their source region on the continent.
Sand blowing on dunes, muffinn from Worcester, UK, Commons Wikimedia.
Winds in that part of the world blow from east to west near the surface. You might know of them as the “trade winds”, which are often described in elementary geography classes as the winds that helped European ships travel west to North America. The trade winds form a band of westward-blowing winds from about 30 degrees south to 30 degrees north latitude around the globe. The strength of the trade winds changes over time, but when they are strong and a lot of dust is available over the Sahara, the particles can blow all the way across the Atlantic, covering large parts of the Atlantic and bringing low air quality and beautiful sunrises and sunsets to people in its path. This month has been particularly dusty, with satellite records showing this is the 2nd dustiest July since continuous records began in 2002. Generally the dust plumes occur at a height of 5,000 to 20,000 feet where the trade winds are the strongest.
How does Saharan dust affect tropical storm development?
The air that carries the Saharan dust is usually very dry, which disrupts the usual moist conditions above the ocean surface and keeps thunderstorms from growing vertically. The vertical air movement would normally help initiate the decrease in surface pressure that helps storms grow. The dust particles also serve as nuclei to absorb even more moisture from the air, keeping the layer dry. The dust is opaque (which makes it visible from satellites) and shades the surface of the ocean, cooling it off and reducing its ability to energize storms.
June 18, 2020, NASA-NOAA’s Suomi NPP satellite, via Commons Wikimedia.
The Saharan dust layer is most likely to occur in the period between
mid-June and mid-August, but there are variations
over time and location because of the strength and direction of the wind.
Sometimes the winds even blow from south to north, bringing
dust to Europe, although this is less frequent. Tropical storms can
sometimes form in pockets of relatively dust-free air, as Hurricane Beryl did
this year, but the thickest layers are very effective at shutting down storm
growth.
How does the dust affect air quality and human health?
Saharan dust incursions into the Southeastern United States
can often been seen in air quality measurements taken in cities around the
region. Like any other dust particles or other aerosols like smoke from forest
fires, the
particles can trigger asthma, burning eyes, and other symptoms associated with
bad air quality. The dust can be seen in lower visibility around the
cities, deposits on horizontal surfaces like cars and plants either directly
from the dust or from “dirty
rain” which contains the dust and brings it down to the ground. It can also
result in spectacular sunrises and sunsets due to the scattering of the sun’s
rays by the particles (similar to those from volcanic eruptions). If you are
sensitive to poor air quality and plan to work outside in your garden, you will
want to monitor air quality carefully and avoid the times when the pollution is
worst.
The moment of sunset, El Manara gardens, محمد بوعلام عصامي, MD. Boualam, Commons Wikimedia.
How can gardeners prepare for episodes of Saharan dust?
First, we need to recognize that while we have not studied Saharan dust impacts for long, it has been around for many years and is a natural part of the earth-atmosphere system. It has beneficial impacts on soil nutrients in tropical rainforests and gardens in the affected areas and helps reduce activity in the tropics early in the season. But with dust events decreasing in the next few weeks, we can expect the Atlantic tropics to start heating up again as the most active part of the season gets underway. Gardeners should monitor their plants for dusty conditions and should also keep track of air quality impacts if they have asthma or other breathing disorders that could be affected by the dusty conditions. Gardeners in other parts of the world should also be aware of sources of dust and other pollutants that could affect their gardens and their own health. The Garden Professors blog has discussed the impacts of dust on gardens in several of our previous posts so please search for them if you want more information.