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In my blog post last month, I mentioned the likelihood of having a very active Atlantic tropical season, especially because the ocean surface temperatures are so warm. But despite an early start to the season with the first three named storms (including Beryl, the earliest ever category 5 storm in the Atlantic Ocean), it’s been quiet for the last few weeks. The ocean temperatures continue to be very warm. What is preventing the development of tropical storms in such a warm environment? One of the main culprits now is Saharan dust that blows west off the African continent and affects the vertical structure of the atmosphere. This keeps tropical waves from developing the necessary circulation to strengthen into a powerful storm. In this post, we will discuss the impacts of the Saharan dust and how it is both good and bad for the environment.

What is Saharan dust and where does it go?

The Sahara Desert covers most of the northern portion of the African continent. It’s the world’s largest source of wind-blown dust supplied to the ocean and adjacent land. It is one of the driest places on earth and is covered with sand and rocks but very little plant materials. This means the dust from the Sahara is mineral dust with low organic content. Seven elements (Ca, Mg, Al, Ti, Fe, K, and Na) account for 98% of the total analyzed inorganic burden. The dust particles are often very fine, so they can travel a long distance from their source region on the continent.

Winds in that part of the world blow from east to west near the surface. You might know of them as the “trade winds”, which are often described in elementary geography classes as the winds that helped European ships travel west to North America. The trade winds form a band of westward-blowing winds from about 30 degrees south to 30 degrees north latitude around the globe. The strength of the trade winds changes over time, but when they are strong and a lot of dust is available over the Sahara, the particles can blow all the way across the Atlantic, covering large parts of the Atlantic and bringing low air quality and beautiful sunrises and sunsets to people in its path. This month has been particularly dusty, with satellite records showing this is the 2^nd dustiest July since continuous records began in 2002. Generally the dust plumes occur at a height of 5,000 to 20,000 feet where the trade winds are the strongest.

How does Saharan dust affect tropical storm development?

The air that carries the Saharan dust is usually very dry, which disrupts the usual moist conditions above the ocean surface and keeps thunderstorms from growing vertically. The vertical air movement would normally help initiate the decrease in surface pressure that helps storms grow. The dust particles also serve as nuclei to absorb even more moisture from the air, keeping the layer dry. The dust is opaque (which makes it visible from satellites) and shades the surface of the ocean, cooling it off and reducing its ability to energize storms.

The Saharan dust layer is most likely to occur in the period between mid-June and mid-August, but there are variations over time and location because of the strength and direction of the wind. Sometimes the winds even blow from south to north, bringing dust to Europe, although this is less frequent. Tropical storms can sometimes form in pockets of relatively dust-free air, as Hurricane Beryl did this year, but the thickest layers are very effective at shutting down storm growth.

How does the dust affect air quality and human health?

Saharan dust incursions into the Southeastern United States can often been seen in air quality measurements taken in cities around the region. Like any other dust particles or other aerosols like smoke from forest fires, the particles can trigger asthma, burning eyes, and other symptoms associated with bad air quality. The dust can be seen in lower visibility around the cities, deposits on horizontal surfaces like cars and plants either directly from the dust or from “dirty rain” which contains the dust and brings it down to the ground. It can also result in spectacular sunrises and sunsets due to the scattering of the sun’s rays by the particles (similar to those from volcanic eruptions). If you are sensitive to poor air quality and plan to work outside in your garden, you will want to monitor air quality carefully and avoid the times when the pollution is worst.

How does the dust affect plants?

Saharan dust has important positive impacts on both phytoplankton in the ocean and on the Amazon rainforest. Those areas are often missing nutrients that would allow plant growth and so additions of iron and phosphorus into those areas can improve soil or water fertility and plant growth. Unfortunately the dust can also contain bacteria or other organic material that can lead to undesirable growth of algae in the ocean. The dust is not acidic, so acid rain is not something we worry about with rain containing the Saharan dust, unlike rain from volcanoes or from coal-burning power plants. The dust can also reduce absorption of sunlight by plants if there is a large amount.

How can gardeners prepare for episodes of Saharan dust?

First, we need to recognize that while we have not studied Saharan dust impacts for long, it has been around for many years and is a natural part of the earth-atmosphere system. It has beneficial impacts on soil nutrients in tropical rainforests and gardens in the affected areas and helps reduce activity in the tropics early in the season. But with dust events decreasing in the next few weeks, we can expect the Atlantic tropics to start heating up again as the most active part of the season gets underway. Gardeners should monitor their plants for dusty conditions and should also keep track of air quality impacts if they have asthma or other breathing disorders that could be affected by the dusty conditions. Gardeners in other parts of the world should also be aware of sources of dust and other pollutants that could affect their gardens and their own health. The Garden Professors blog has discussed the impacts of dust on gardens in several of our previous posts so please search for them if you want more information.

My social media administrator (aka cat herder extraordinaire) reminded me recently that I’d written a post on xylem function and promised to follow up the next month with a post on how phloem works. Well, that was about 18 months ago. Guess I better keep my promise.

Do read the linked post if you don’t remember why “xylem sucks.” In contrast to xylem, functional phloem is an interconnected series of living cells with cell membranes. The presence of a membrane means the plant can regulate what goes in and out of the phloem, and the direction of phloem flow is determined by the relative concentrations of dissolved substances in the water – most importantly sugars derived from photosynthesis. Areas of high sugar concentration are sources; areas of low sugar concentration are called sinks. As these words suggest, phloem contents are moved from the source to the sink. This process is called translocation.

The most obvious sources in plants are leaves and other green tissues: this is where photosynthesis takes place and sugars are created. Other less obvious sources are woody roots, trunks, and branches: carbohydrate reserves are built up in the fall, as winter-hardy species enter dormancy and deciduous plants shed their leaves. Carbohydrates are re-mobilized in the spring when trees, shrubs, and perennials emerge from dormancy.

Like source tissues, sink tissues vary with the season but can also change daily – especially during the growing season. Expanding leaf and flower buds demand energy for building new cells; ripening fruits require large quantities of sugars. As new branches grow and produce leaves, their demand for carbohydrates decreases until they become source tissues. Translocation is a complex, dynamic process, where phloem in different parts of the plant translocate sugars in different directions.

This information can be used to guide your gardening practices:

Application of translocated herbicides. While we always want to reserve chemical weed control as a last resort, sometimes it’s necessary when other methods aren’t successful. Glyphosate (the active ingredient in Roundup) is applied to leaves and is carried through the phloem to sink tissues. When you read the label on a glyphosate-containing herbicide, it will mention that late summer/fall application is needed to kill the roots of perennial weeds. Consider hedge bindweed (Calystegia sepium), a pernicious and difficult weed to remove by mechanical or cultural means once it’s established in a garden or landscape. Glyphosate will successfully kill this weed but only if it’s applied after flowering. At that point the plant is no longer putting resources into either flower production or vegetative growth; instead, translocation moves carbohydrates (and the glyphosate) to the roots for storage over the winter. Killing the underground storage tissues means this herbaceous perennial will not reappear the next spring.

Pruning the crown during the growing season. When plants are actively producing new leaves and flowers, translocation is generally directed towards these tissues. Pruning leaf-bearing branches and stems has two consequences: removal of source tissues (the leaves) and increased demand for resources from the rest of the plant. Carbohydrates are moved from other sources, like remaining leaves and woody storage tissues, to the expanding stem and leaf buds that have been stimulated by pruning. This is why chronic and/or severe pruning can have a dwarfing effect on woody plants: woody storage tissues are depleted of their resources which are translocated to the developing buds. Until the new growth leafs out, it will remain a sink tissue.

Pruning the crown after transplanting. Take the information from the previous section and now consider the additional sink that has been created during transplanting. Successful establishment of a newly installed plant requires rapid development of new root tissues. Pruning the crown of new transplants siphons much of the stored resources away from the roots, reducing the rate of root growth and establishment. Reduced root establishment also means reduced uptake of water, which will damage the newly expanding buds and leaves. Bottom line: do NOT crown prune after transplanting, except to remove diseased, damaged, or dead branches. Wait until the following year to undertake any structural pruning.

Last month I discussed the forecast for the Atlantic tropical season and pointed out that it is likely to be an active one. As I write this, there has already been one named storm (Alberto, which went into Mexico but dropped a lot of rain in southern Texas) and two more areas of potential development are moving their way through the Atlantic (note TS Beryl formed on Friday, June 28 at 11 pm after this was written). Hurricane season has begun! This month I will discuss what a tropical storm is and how they form into hurricanes. I will end by discussing how tropical storms and hurricanes impact gardens and what you can do to prepare for them.

Where do tropical storms and hurricanes form?

While we think of hurricanes as hitting the southeastern part of the United States, they are actually much more widespread than that. The map below shows that tropical storms can form in both hemispheres and affect every continent except for Antarctica. Here in the United States we see them most often over the Atlantic Ocean but can experience storms on the west coast from time to time as well. The storms are not always called hurricanes, they can be called typhoons in the Western Pacific and cyclones in the Indian Ocean and Australia. To be considered a hurricane or one of these other storms they have to record a sustained wind speed of 74 mph or higher. Storms in the United States that are stronger than that are classified by the Saffir-Simpson scale into categories 1 through 5 depending on how strong the winds are. And of course the wind gusts in the storms can be quite a bit higher than the sustained winds, they are just more localized and last for only short periods.

What ingredients are needed for a tropical storm or hurricane to form?

The prerequisite conditions for hurricanes are: warm, deep ocean waters (greater than 80°F / 27°C), an atmosphere cooling rapidly with altitude, moist middle layers of the atmosphere, low wind shear, and a pre-existing near surface region of low pressure in the surface environment. But you might have noticed from the map that even if these conditions are in place a tropical cyclone is not likely to form if it is not at least 300 or so miles from the equator. This is because of the Coriolis force which acts on moving air on a rotating planet to push air to the right of the original direction of movement in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Low pressure draws air into the circulation, but the Coriolis force helps it to spin up into a storm with a defined circulation.

The seeds of low pressure where storms form can come from atmospheric waves moving east to west off of Africa, sometimes from stalled fronts over the Gulf of Mexico or along the East Coast of the United States. These usually provide the initial trigger of storm development. But not all waves or fronts can develop into cyclones if the other conditions are not right. The location of typical development depends on the time of year, with early and late storms developing closer to the United States and most storms in the peak period from mid-August to mid-October forming from waves coming off the west coast of Africa.

You might wonder why there are almost no tropical storms in the southeastern Pacific or in the southern Atlantic Ocean. That is because the water is normally too cold to sustain storm development. Since ocean temperatures are warming over time we could see more storms there in the future, especially in the South Atlantic where temperatures are already warmer than the SE Pacific. The tropical season could also become longer as the ocean warms up to 80 F earlier in the year in the future.

Tropical storms and hurricanes move under the influence of winds midway up in the atmosphere which push along the core of the storm as it is growing or weakening. The stronger the core of the storm, the closer the link between the large-scale atmospheric pattern and the storm movement. In the map above you can see that most storms move in a curving pattern that begins in the east near the equator and moves west over time before recurving to the northeast in a clockwise manner. This pattern is caused by subtropical high pressure, called the “Bermuda High”, over the Atlantic but by other names in other parts of the world. The path of each storm is unique due to the weather pattern present at the time of the storm, and sometimes they can take some crazy paths if the weather pattern is unusual.

How do tropical storms become hurricanes?

Usually, a wave of low pressure over the ocean pulls in air towards the center to reduce the pressure gradient. As the air moves in, the Coriolis force causes it to start spinning. In the Northern Hemisphere this spin is counterclockwise. The air above the surface circulation starts to flow out of the storm and drops the pressure at the surface causing the storm to intensify as air rises near the center of the storm. This continues as long as there is a source of energy (warm water) below it and there is no jet stream high up in the atmosphere to disrupt the development of the circulation. When the sustained wind speed reaches 74 mph its designation is changed from Tropical Storm to Hurricane and it stays that way until the wind speed drops as the storm weakens over land or colder water.

What impacts do tropical cyclones have on gardens and what can you do to prepare?

Tropical systems have a variety of impacts depending on where they are and how strong they are. Thoughtful gardeners will consider all the risks that severe weather can have on their gardens and get ready long before the storms hit. The strong and gusty winds are the most apparent impact; they can cause damage to trees, buildings, and plants and can cause significant damage to gardens. It’s a good idea to walk through your property periodically to look for dead or diseased limbs that could become airborne missiles in strong winds (whether or not they are from a hurricane). Decorative items and furniture left outside can damage tree trunks as well as houses and gardens when they become wind-borne. So if a storm is imminent, scout your property to remove anything that could be potentially hazardous.

Another important impact is flooding rain. The amount of rain that falls from a hurricane depends in part on how fast it is moving, since a slow-moving storm can drop more rain on a particular spot than one that is moving through quickly. The storm does not have to be strong to produce a lot of rain either—some of the weaker storms have been great rain-makers. And it does not even need to be an organized storm. Wet tropical systems that are not fully organized into storms have the potential to produce flooding rain, as we saw in southern Florida just a couple of weeks ago with over 20 inches of rain in some locations. The remains of hurricanes can also cause floods far inland, especially if there are mountains to help the air rise. Hurricane Agnes in 1972 had damage from the Caribbean all the way to Canada because of the torrential rains that fell along the Appalachian Mountains as it moved north. Gardeners who live in areas where flooding is likely should plan ahead to divert rain into rain gardens away from their planting beds to reduce erosion and keep soil from becoming saturated.

Hurricanes can also cause other impacts too, especially if you are near the coast. Storm surge can drive sea levels up to 25 feet above mean sea level as the water builds a dome under the area of lowest pressure that moves along with the storm until it makes landfall. If you are in a coastal area, you need to consider what the elevations of your land and house are so you know how much the water might rise in a strong storm. Another impact is the strong storms that can occur in the spiral bands outside the main circulation. These storms can hold weak tornadoes as well as heavy rain and gusty winds. In Hurricane Ivan in 2004, we had a tornado in Athens GA at the same time that the main storm was making landfall along the coast several hundred miles away.

As gardeners, it is important to keep in mind that tropical storms and hurricanes are not all bad. The rain that comes from these storms may include 30-40 percent of the summer rain that is expected to fall in a tropical area, and if few storms come, drought is more likely.  But the damage is also like to stress your gardens (not to mention the gardeners!), so learning more about these storms and planning ahead to prepare for the damage they might bring is a good thing for every home owner in an area prone to tropical activity to do now, before the storms come.

It’s been 20 years since I began my Extension position at Washington State University. During that time, I’ve tackled gardening myths and produced peer-reviewed fact sheets and manuals through our Extension Publications department. But because of the way that Google searches work, these resources are often buried far beneath the glitzy but fact-free websites promoting bad science. This month I’ll be shining a spotlight on some publications that are must-reads for those who wish to use science-based information in their garden and landscape activities.

If the sheer vastness of the online swamp of information horrifies you, there’s no better place to start than with our Scientific Literacy manual. This publication, coauthored with Dr. Catherine Daniels, introduces you to the CRAP (Credibility, Relevance, Accuracy, Purpose) analysis of information from any source. As the abstract states, this publication helps you “to distinguish science from pseudoscience and can help avoid wasting time, money, and resources on poor ideas or, worse, scams.”

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With the CRAP analysis techniques under your belt, you will appreciate our fact sheets debunking some of the “plausible nonsense” force-fed to gardeners (and by extension their plants and soils). The use of Epsom salt in the garden is one of the biggest fact-free nostrums out there. Our Epsom Salt fact sheet, coauthored by Rich Guggenheim, outlines what misapplication of Epsom salt will do to your garden soils and the news is not good.

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Right up there with Epsom salt is gypsum, another popular soil amendment with many purported benefits. While gypsum can alleviate problems in heavily used agricultural soils, it has little to no benefit when applied to gardens and landscapes. Our Gypsum fact sheet, also coauthored by Rich Guggenheim, will tell all!

Since we’re discussing chemicals that are added to soils, I’ll refer you to another article written by Dr. Jim Downer and myself. Soil myth-busting for Extension educators – reviewing the literature on soil nutrition is a peer-reviewed publication in the Journal of NACAA. In this article we discuss address “six common misperceptions about managing soil nutrition in nonagricultural situations.” And yes, two of these misperceptions are the routine use of gypsum and Epsom salt.

I invite you to use the methods in our scientific literacy manual to debunk claims you read or hear about soil amendments. Knowledge is power and you can become a gardening superhero by helping fight the gardening swill that fills the informational swamp.

Next month I’ll continue the “truth series” with a look at some of our publications on garden practices we believe to be true…but aren’t based on science. In the meantime, here a couple of related blog posts that you might enjoy:

I do my version of the shame list with the “Dirty Dozen Garden Products.” Not only is this a good reviews of things that don’t belong on your garden soils, but there’s a fun quiz to see how your stack up with science.

This post on “Garden Logic” links up nicely with our discussion of CRAP analysis. Find out why we tend to jump to conclusions about what we see in the garden, regardless on whether it’s evidence-based or not.

Stay tuned for next month!

We are entering the hottest time of the year for most of our readers except for those who live in the Southern Hemisphere or in tropical locations where there is not a big seasonal cycle. Heat can have a big impact on both gardens and gardeners, so this is a great time to look at a new product that is now available from the National Weather Service to alert people who spend time outside to the dangers of high temperatures. This new HeatRisk product will help you use the 7-day forecast to identify times when the heat will be the most severe—which will allow you to plan your outdoor work accordingly to avoid the worst dates and times of dangerous heat conditions. I will also provide some resources for how heat affects plants from The Garden Professors and briefly talk about one potential consequence of high temperatures on the upcoming Atlantic tropical season, which starts June 1 in the United States.

How does high heat affect gardeners?

Usually when we talk about heat, we are talking about high temperatures. But as they say, “it’s not (just) the heat, it’s the humidity.” High temperatures alone can cause problems for humans and animals because our bodies are built to work best in a narrow range of temperatures. If the temperature goes above that range (or below it), our physical systems experience distress and eventually will shut down. High humidity makes it worse because it makes our natural ability to cool off by sweating less effective because the water on the skin from sweat does not evaporate readily when the water content of the air is high. Many indices for the heat index factor in both temperature and humidity, and the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT–more on this in a minute) includes temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation because all of these factors can affect the body’s ability to cool off.

If you are outdoors for a long time and start to experience dizziness or nausea or even worse become unconscious, then you are likely experiencing a heat-related illness and you need to get to a cooler area where you can recover right away. In the worst cases, a trip to the hospital may be needed when the body temperature is elevated above the safe range for human life. You can learn more about protecting yourself from high heat at Heat.gov.

What is the NWS HeatRisk map?

Fortunately, there are number of online tools available that can help identify days and times when the danger from high heat is most likely. The National Weather Service has just released a new experimental product called HeatRisk, which provides an interactive map that shows where the heat will be the most dangerous over the next few days. An example of the map is shown below. You can either zoom in on the map or click on your location to get a specific temperature forecast for that spot.

Another tool that may be useful is available across the United States from the Southeast Regional Climate Center at https://convergence.unc.edu/tools/wbgt/. Their tool produces hourly forecasts of WBGT based on National Weather Service forecasts for several days ahead at whatever US location you choose (not just the Southeast) that can determine when conditions are most dangerous for working or playing outside. The WBGT is often used by sports teams to determine if it is safe for players to practice outdoors and how often they need to take a break. The tool gives you the choice of several state regulations for threshold values for WBGT that should determine whether football or other practice is safe. The same information can be used to decide if outdoor workers need extra water breaks in the shade or when gardeners should come in, cool down, and rehydrate.

How does high heat affect plants and gardens?

Plants respond differently to heat than humans and other animals do because they don’t sweat. High heat can cause the plants to close the stomas in their leaves to retain moisture but a long enough period of high temperatures and dry conditions with little soil moisture leads to wilting and eventually, death of the plants. I am not an expert on this, but fortunately Jim Downer and other GP authors have written several blog posts in the past that address the effects of heat stress on plants. John Porter has also written on the effects of high temperatures on pollination and ripening. Check out some of these posts, especially Jim’s post on abiotic disorders, to see what effects high temperatures may have on your garden.

What do we expect from this year’s Atlantic tropical season and how is it related to high temperatures?

This year we have seen a lot of record high temperatures across the globe due in part to greenhouse warming. Sea surface temperatures in the northern Atlantic Ocean have been especially high, most likely due to a combination of greenhouse warming and the absence of aerosol particles in the atmosphere due to the switch to cleaner fuel for ocean vessels a couple of years ago. This change allowed more sunlight to heat up the ocean surface. These ocean temperatures are so much higher than normal that the temperatures are closer to August values than what we usually expect in late May. Since hurricanes feed and grow over water than is warmer than 80 F, it means that the atmosphere over the main development region for Atlantic tropical storms is stoked and could contribute to both a larger number of storms than usual and more rapid development for any storms that do develop. It’s no wonder that the forecasts for the number of named storms in the Atlantic this year is one of the highest ever predicted. So if you are anywhere within reach of an Atlantic storm (which is most of the eastern US but also includes most of the Caribbean, Mexico, and potentially even Central or northern South America and parts of Europe), you should be prepared for tropical activity well in advance of any storms that might come your way this year.

Enjoy the hot weather but treat it with respect

If you like hot weather as much as I do, you are looking forward to the warmer weather we will see over the next few months. But if the weather gets too hot, as it is now in India, Mexico, and other places, heat-related illnesses and even deaths will become more likely. In 2023, the United States set a new record for the number of heat-related deaths. Climate change will make devastating heat waves more likely in the future, so make sure you are prepared. If you understand how heat affects your bodies, pets, and gardens and know how to take care of yourself, you will be better equipped to enjoy the dog days of summer this year and in the future as the earth’s temperature continues to rise. Be safe and enjoy the summer heat!

It’s time for our Spring edition of People and Plants. This time we’ll be taking a look at the life and accomplishments of Asa Gray.

Asa Gray (November 18, 1810 – January 30, 1888), now considered the most important American botanist of the 19th century, had very humble beginnings. He was born in the back of his father’s tannery in Sauquoit, New York, the eldest of eight children. From childhood Asa was an avid reader. After completing grammar school in 1825 he attended the Fairfield Academy in Herkimer Co., New York and then went on to the Fairfield Medical College in 1826. It was then he began mounting botanical specimens. He got his medical degree and did eventually open a practise in Bridgewater, New York but never really “made a go of it”, he enjoyed botany much more. So much more that in the fall of 1831 he basically gave up his medical practise to devote more time to the study of plants.

By 1832 he was trading specimens with botanists not only in America but also in the Pacific Islands, Asia and Europe.
In early 1836 he became curator and librarian at the Lyceum of Natural History in New York, now called the New York Academy of Sciences, he resigned in 1837. In 1838 he took a position at the newly established University of Michigan as the Appointed Professor of Botany and Zoology. This position was the first devoted solely to botany at any educational institution in America. He was soon dispatched to Europe to purchase books to start the university’s library and for equipment, such as microscopes, to aid research. He spent a year traveling around Europe, visiting gardens and meeting important botanists of the day including William Hooker in Glasgow, Jospeh Descaisne in Paris, Stephan Endlicher in Vienna, and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in Geneva. He returned to the USA in 1841.
Some trip, eh?

While he was in Paris at the Jardin des Plantes Gray came across an unnamed dried specimen, collected by André Michaux, and named it Shortia galacifolia. Over the next 38 years he spent considerable effort looking for a specimen in the wild. The first expedition in the summer of 1841 to an area in Ashe Co., North Carolina was unsuccessful. Further expeditions yielded the same negative results. In May 1877 a North Carolina herb collector found a plant he couldn’t identify. It was collected and sent to Joseph Whipple Congdon who contacted Gray telling him that he felt he’d found Shortia. Gray was thrilled to confirm this when he saw the specimen in October 1878. In spring 1879 Gray led an expedition to the spot where S. galacifolia had been found. Unfortunately, and much to his disappointment, Gray never saw the wild species in bloom.

In 1841 Gray was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1842 he accepted the offer of a position at Harvard University. It included a salary of $1,000/year, teaching only botany, and being the superintendent of Harvard’s botanic garden. Though the salary was low the position allowed him plenty of time to do research and work in the garden. He was only 32.
At the time he had a priceless collection of more than 200,000 preserved plants, many of which he named as new species, and 2,000 botanical texts, which he donated to Harvard to found its botany department.

In the summer of 1844 Gray moved into what became known as the Asa Gray House in the Botanic Garden. As an academic, Gray was considered a weak lecturer but was highly regarded by his peers for his expert knowledge. He was better suited to teaching advanced rather than introductory classes, which he found tedious.
He eventually became well known by the outside of academia for his prolific writings and textbooks.

His first book, The Elements of Botany was published in 1836. In it Gray championed the idea that botany was useful not only to medicine, but also for farmers. His next work Flora of North America, co-authored with John Torrey, was published in 1938.
By the mid-1850s he had become so well-known that he wrote two high school-level texts in the late 1850s: First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology (1857) and How Plants Grow: A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany (1858). The publishers pressured Gray to make these two books non-technical enough so high school students and non-scientists could understand them.
A prolific writer, he was instrumental in unifying the taxonomy of North American plants. The most popular book was his Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, from New England to Wisconsin and South to Ohio and Pennsylvania Inclusive, known today simply as Gray’s Manual. Gray was the sole author of the first five editions of the book and co-author of the sixth, with botanical illustrations by Isaac Sprague. Many editions have been published and it remains a standard in the field. 

Gray also worked extensively on a phenomenon called the “Asa Gray disjunction” which is the surprising morphological similarities between many eastern Asian and eastern North American plants.

Before 1840 Gray’s knowledge of Western US plants was limited to specimens sent him by collectors and colleagues working in the field. He worked with George Engelmann, Ferdinand Lindheimer, and Charles Wright who all collected widely in the Southwest including Texas, New Mexico, and parts of northern Mexico.
Accompanied by his wife, Gray finally traveled to the American West on two separate occasions, the first by train in 1872  and then again in 1877. Both times his goal was botanical research and sample collection to take back to Harvard. His collecting companion on these trips was Jospeh Dalton Hooker, son of William Hooker whom Gray had met in Glasgow on his first trip to Europe in 1838. Gray’s and Hooker’s research was reported in their joint 1880 publication, “The Vegetation of the Rocky Mountain Region and a Comparison with that of Other Parts of the World,” which appeared in volume six of Hayden’s Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geophysical Survey of the Territories.

Asa died in January of 1888 after suffering a stroke two months prior.

We’ve just skipped a stone across the pond of Asa Gray’s life. Here are some links if you’d like to learn more.
Asa at 200 –https://huh.harvard.edu/book/asa-gray-200
The Asa Gray Bulletin – https://www.jstor.org/journal/asagraybull
Asa Gray: Faith and Evolution – https://sciencemeetsfaith.wordpress.com/2020/11/17/asa-gray-bridging-faith-and-evolution/
Asa Gray online papers – https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Gray%2C%20Asa%2C%201810%2D1888
Asa Gray Award – https://www.aspt.net/asa-gray-award

As I write this, about half of the lower 48 United States has passed the median date of the last freeze according to the National Centers for Environmental Information. Here in the Southeast, we are well into the planting season even though our usually early planting for crops like corn was delayed due to very wet soil. The rest of you may have to wait for a few more weeks before you can put any heat-loving plants into the ground. As we enter the growing season for the majority of the country I thought it might be helpful to take an updated look at what we expect this summer and fall to give you an idea of what conditions you might experience.

What factors will control the climate this summer?

In the Southeast most gardeners say that you should not plant summer crops and flowers until after Easter, although since Easter has a variable date that can sometimes be a problem when it is unusually early. In western Michigan where I grew up my grandmother always told me to wait until after Memorial Day. What rule of thumb do you use? If you look at the map below, you can see why! Wherever you garden you need to know the specific weather and climate to expect in your location. That includes things like the plant hardiness zone, how much rain to expect, and the specific microclimates within your garden (especially if it is a large one). That will help you pick the plants and trees that will do best in your location.

Every year is unique in terms of what temperature and precipitation patterns occur, but in many parts of the country we can get some indications of what might occur due to large-scale climate patterns that are occurring across the world. Of course these also affect the weather in other places from Europe to Australia and points in between, but I am going to focus on the US in this post.

The biggest patterns that are going to be affecting the climate this summer include 1) rising temperatures due to greenhouse warming, 2) the predicted transition from a strong El Niño to a La Niña later this summer, and 3) unusual warmth in the Atlantic Ocean which will affect the development of tropical storms and hurricanes in this year’s Atlantic Tropical Season.

Impacts of greenhouse warming trend

As temperatures rises around the globe we can expect both daytime high temperatures and overnight low temperatures to increase in temperature. In most areas the minimum overnight temperatures are rising faster than the daytime highs. This is due to a combination of increased humidity caused by increases in evaporation and more water-holding capacity of the air and heat-trapping in urban areas due to pavement and buildings. You can determine trends in temperature and precipitation for your location using the “Climate at a Glance” tool for anywhere in the continental US, including maximum and minimum temperature. The increased humidity will increase the likelihood of fungal diseases in plants that are susceptible so you will want to watch carefully and be prepared to treat them. You should also watch for protracted hot, dry spells and increased water usage, which might require you to water more often. But keep in mind that while the average temperature might be warmer, there will still be ups and downs with the daily weather.

Impacts of El Niño swinging to La Niña

We are currently in a waning El Niño (EN) after experiencing a strong EN over the winter. The winter weather pattern showed a very clear EN pattern over most of the country (and other parts of the world for that matter) with unusual warmth and dry conditions in the northern US and wet, somewhat cooler, cloudier conditions in the southern part of the country although that was tempered by the long-term temperature trend upward. The current EN is expected to disappear rapidly over the next few months and swing to the opposite phase, La Niña (LN), by mid to late summer as shown below. I also discussed this back in February. This LN will likely control our weather for a good part of the rest of 2024 and into the spring of 2025.

How will this affect the growing season weather in the US? While the correlation between LN or EN and summer weather is less strong than the winter correlation, we do expect to see some lingering effects of EN for the next few months before LN kicks in. That means wetter conditions are likely to continue in the southeastern US for the next few months before dry and sunny conditions move in later this summer or fall. The timing of when that transition occurs depends on how quickly the transition from EN to LN occurs. It is changing right now, but it’s still too early to tell how soon it will affect our summer weather. In the northern US we will probably see more seasonal weather for the next few months but next winter is likely to be much colder and wetter than last year. Again, the transition should occur later this summer but could wait until late fall to really become apparent. Some areas like the Central Plains are not very predictable by the phase of EN or LN so we are less certain about what you will experience if you live there. You can see the lack of certainty in the May-July temperature map below.

The warm Atlantic and what we expect from the Atlantic tropics this year

Last year, we had 19 named storms plus three other unnamed storms that were close to tropical status. This is in spite of the El Niño, which usually suppresses development of tropical systems because of strong winds aloft that keep tropical storms from developing the vertical structure they need to grow. Most of those storms stayed over the Atlantic Ocean where the water temperatures have been at record-setting levels for over a year. They are still at record-setting levels now and are even hotter than last year at this time. This year with a La Niña there is not much to keep storms from developing so I expect to see more storms, especially in the western Atlantic and in the Gulf, where they are more likely to come onshore and do damage or drop a lot of rain along their paths. I have seen predictions of as many as 33 named storms this year, although that would be a record and climatologists don’t generally like to forecast record values. A more conservative value of mid-20s for named storms seems more likely, although this is still a lot more than we usually get. What you actually experience depends critically on the path that the storms take, which cannot be predicted until after the storms form. So you could get hit directly by strong winds and heavy rain or you could be in the area outside the path with clear skies, sinking air, and no rain at all.

No matter how many named storms we get, those of you who live in the eastern US where a hurricane or tropical storm (or their remnants, which can also carry flooding rain to places far away from the tropics) can travel should be watching carefully when the storms start popping later this spring or early summer. Conversely if you live in the western US, you may see less activity this year than last year since when LN is strong, the Eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO) storms have a harder time developing due to the colder ocean water in the EPO associated with LN. But with rising global temperatures we are in uncharted territory so surprises are always possible.

What NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center predicts

The combination of all of these factors (and other climate influences as well) is collected into NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center maps. I have shown the one for May through July 2024 below. It shows the likelihood of wet conditions in the Southeast and drier conditions out west associated with the lagging EN conditions. You can see maps for other time periods at Climate Prediction Center – Seasonal Outlook (noaa.gov).

For gardeners, if you are in the region where frost is still likely, you should hold off on planting tender vegetables and flowers at this point or at least start them inside. If you are in the southern reaches where frost is no longer likely then you can (and probably are already) plant the summer flowers and vegetables you are craving to set out, as long as no cold outbreaks are predicted. If you live in an area that is affected either directly by tropical storms and hurricanes or indirectly by heavy rains that remain after the storm has weakened now is a good time to clear out dead limbs and other potential flying debris, think about drainage in your gardens in case of heavy rain. Please make your hurricane plans in case one tracks over you (you can find one for Georgia at https://gacoast.uga.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ResidentsHandbook.pdf but most of the information there is relevant to large parts of the country). If you live in other parts of the country like the western states, you could see dry conditions and potential wildfires return to those areas so you should prepare for those conditions. By late fall, the La Niña should be well established and dry conditions are likely to occur in the southern tier of the US while cold and wet conditions are more likely in the northern states.

Arborists are trained in seminars and texts that rot in trees is bad. Wood decay can constitute a “hazardous condition” which when accompanied by the tree being in a place that has a target and the tree is large, can create a “hazardous tree”. The notion of hazardous trees is a uniquely human construct that has little to do with the ecology of trees, the variety of organisms that utilizes large declining trees, and does not consider what the various defects in trees may be contributing to the environment or forest around that tree in terms of organism habitat.  Humans require that trees living near them must perform appropriately otherwise get out the chain saw and make them comply.   In the last decade tree care for birds and  wildlife has become a popular training subject for arborists in the western United States.  In Europe researchers have been popularizing the notion that large trees can become centers of biodiversity because they have many microhabitats that support numerous organisms not found on younger trees.  This concept is abbreviated TreM or Tree related Microhabitat.

As trees mature and then decline, they accumulate deadwood, cavities, epiphytic organisms, excrescences, exudates, fungal decay organisms, and even accumulates of soil or pockets of water in branch crotches. Arboriculture practice tends to regard tree defects as having no value, thus we remove dead wood, cut down trees with cavities and condemn trees with wood decay sporophores. It is now accepted that the more “defects” a tree accumulates the quantity and diversity of organisms associated with that individual tree also increases. In this sense old trees become centers of biodiversity within both managed and unmanaged forests.

The health of a forest is not measured only by the quality of the wood it can produce or the number of board feet it can supply, but also by its connections to other organisms that ensure its health over time. Forests are ecosystems and require connections between organisms and diversity of organisms in order to be resilient. These organisms utilize not only living but also dying and declining trees. Ancient trees are often rich in defects and have many TreM’s.

Tree injuries such as storm damaged branches, lightning scars, frost cracks, branch failures and and other damage are all considered TreM’s. While these are functional habitat in forests they may be quickly removed from the urban forest even if they do not pose a hazard. Now that they have apparent value, perhaps we can rethink their removal where and when appropriate.

The TreM concept is derived from trees growing in forests not those in cities. TreM’s may not become a management tool for urban forestry, however there are many lessons to be learned from the TreM concept. The greater the number of microhabitats, the more organisms and connections between organisms there will be. This provides resilience even to urban ecosystems. There is strong evidence that TreM’s serve as a reservoir of organisms in forests helping to maintain their health. Using the TreM concept for non-forest trees will not change how trees are managed for many situations. Risk tolerance often trumps ecosystem services. Greater understanding of TreM’s will perhaps allow us to save trees that do not pose hazards where they would otherwise be disposed of. Some tree managers have tried to create defects in trees to enhance habitat for wildlife. This is not based in science and I do not advocate creating TreM’s for the sake of having them in trees. Fungi and other organisms find their way into trees all too easily. Until we have some science based evidence for the creation of TreM’s, I recommend against it. It’s the whole do no harm thing we have going as plant pathologists. Being aware of TreM’s and evaluating their usefulness in the urban forest is a new area of study.

In their field guide, Butler et al., 2020 describe 47 TreM’s that they further break down into 15 groups and 7 types. The field guide is available on line if you want to find out more about TreM’s. The research on TreM’s is nascent, and restricted mainly to Europe and Canada. This fall we will collect data in the Chiricahua Mountains to add to that body of research as part of the South Western Research Station’s Trees Course to be held the last week of September into early October.

References

Butler, R., T. Lachat, F. Krumm, D. Kraus, and L. Larrieu. 2020. Field guide to Tree-related Microhabitats. Descritpions and size limits for their inventory. Birmensdorf, Swiss Federal Insitute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL. 59 p. www.wsl.ch/fg-trems

Larrieu, L., Paillet, Y., Winter, S., Butler, R., Kraus, D., Krumm, F., Lachat, T., Michel, A.K., Regenery, B., and Vanderkerkhove, K. 2018 Tree related microhabitats in temperate and Mediterranean European forests: a hierarchical typology fr inventory standardization. Ecologial Indicators, 84: 194-207

In the last week, I’ve driven all the way from western Virginia, where the redbuds are blooming, to Tallahassee, FL, where red clover is everywhere. As I drove through the mountains north of Charlotte NC, I noticed some signs indicating that strong gap winds may blow down the valleys when atmospheric pressure patterns align to produce strong pressure gradients that drive the wind. I have discussed wind before in previous posts (“Who has seen the wind?” and “Does wind chill affect plants?”) so you can find the basics of what causes wind and some of the different kinds of local winds by going to those posts. In today’s article I want to share some different local names for winds and other local weather and invite you to share your own local weather names. Note that this is not a complete list, but I will provide links at the end that prove a bigger sample of all the names that are used around the world to denote different kinds of weather, especially wind.

Local weather names based on topography

Local mountains and valleys can cause a big variety in the types of winds we observe. Generally, these winds can be classified as katabatic winds blowing downhill and anabatic winds blowing uphill. The direction depends on the time of day due to heating but also to large-scale weather patterns that direct the flow of air. Local winds can also occur due to changes in the heights of the ridges so that where the ridges are low, air can spill over the mountains in the gaps between peaks. Winds blowing downslope can also accelerate as they move to lower elevations, increasing their strength. Those winds can be very strong because of the funneling effect of the terrain leading to warnings like the ones I saw on Interstate 77 in the northern North Carolina Mountains. Some of these local winds in other parts of the world are called the Viento Zonda (or Zonda wind) in Argentina, the Williwaw in the Alaskan Panhandle, Karaburan in Central Asia, Chinook wind along the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains in the USA, Mistral in France, and the Warm Braw in the Schouten Islands north of New Guinea. You can read more about each of these by looking online at Wikipedia or other sites (link below). Winds which are affected by topography can provide good sources of steady wind for wind farms.

One of the most interesting large-scale topography-driven winds is the Tehuantepecer in southern Mexico which begins in the Gulf of Mexico (after coming south across North America) as a north wind that crosses the Mexican isthmus and blows through the gap between the Mexican and Guatamalan Mountains. It is so strong that it can be felt as much as 100 miles out to sea. This happens several times a year, especially in winter when the wind is more often from the north, and is amazing to see on https://earth.nullschool.net/ when it happens. In fact, as I am writing this on Thursday (March 28, 2024) it is happening today! How cool is that?

Local weather names based on changes of air mass

Some winds are named for abrupt shifts in atmospheric temperature and humidity when air from a different source region moves in. They can be small-scale changes due to outflows from individual thunderstorms like gust fronts or can be larger-scale changes due to wind blowing an air mass with colder, hotter, or drier characteristics into the area.

Some of the winds associated with drier and dustier conditions occur near desert locations as the wind shifts to bring in air from the desert regions to replace the air that was already there. One of the most common terms for one of these is haboob, which originated in Sudan but is now used in the western U. S. (Haboob basically means “dust storm” in Arabic but sounds a lot more exotic). A haboob is associated with a wall of hot, dusty air that moves into the region from the desert, bringing low visibilities to the region (often resulting in car accidents as drivers caught unawares can be blinded by the sudden change in conditions). Other dry winds include the Khamsin in Egypt and the Red Sea region, the Scirocco in North Africa and the Mediterranean, and the Harmattan in West Africa.

Cold winds include the Blue Norther, a fast-moving cold front that moves in from the north that can send temperature plummeting by 20-30 degrees in a few minutes, the Bora in the Adriatic region, the Khazri in the north Caspian Sea, the Montreal Express in New England, and the Norte in Mexico. In the Southeast US, we have what we call the Wedge, which is a shallow layer of cold air that moves south along the eastern slope of the Appalachian Mountains under northeast flow, bringing clouds, cold weather, and the chance of ice storms to the region in spring. The Wedge is partly due to topography as well, since the cold air is so shallow that it can’t move west over the Appalachian Mountains and thus is forced down to us in parts of the Carolinas and Georgia. Hot dry winds include the Brickfielder in southern Australia, the Leveche in southern Spain, and the Diablo and Santa Ana winds in California, which are also affected by air moving down from the mountains into coastal areas of the state when high pressure dominates the Southwest.

Local winds are associated with thunderstorms

In addition to the wind names associated with topography and change of air quality there are also some names that are tied to smaller weather events like hurricanes and thunderstorms. Those include the Kalbaishakhi in India and Bangladesh, the Bayamo on Cuba’s southern coast, the Pampero in Argentina and Uruguay, the Cordonazo on the west coast of Mexico, and the Borasco in the Mediterranean. Strong winds associated with thunderstorms can cause tremendous damage to gardens, trees, and buildings and can cause problems with flights and road transportation. Since it is spring and we are entering severe weather season for a lot of the US, it’s a good reminder that it does not need to be a tornado to cause significant damage—straight-line winds can be just as severe.

Knowing your local climate is important for gardeners

Anyone who lives for a long time at a location will start to recognize the local weather and climate patterns that govern your local garden conditions. If you are really dedicated, you can even measure these variations. If you know that in certain seasons, you are more likely to experience very dry dusty air, you might consider plants that can survive those conditions with less care. If you live in an area that is subject to frequent strong local winds, you will need to plan your garden to place more wind-resistant plants where the air flow is the strongest or else construct a wind shelter to keep more sensitive plants safe. Buildings can also affect the wind flow and can cause “wind tunnels” where the air is constricted and blows faster in the narrow passage.

Note: For those of you who wonder about the title of this post, Maria (sometimes listed as Mariah) is a fictional wind popularized in “Paint Your Wagon” (Lerner and Lowe, 1951) and by the Kingston Trio (1959). The name may have originated with the 1941 book “Storm” by George R. Stewart according to my colleague Jan Null of Golden Gate Weather Services.

Sources of more local wind information

Here are some websites that have listings of additional local winds, although none of them is a complete list, I am sure.

Wikimedia (with links to most of the individual winds): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_winds.

GG Weather: https://ggweather.com/winds.html

U. K. Met Office: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/wind/wind-names

If you have a local name for the wind or weather in your region, please share it in the comments!

Wherever whitetail deer occur they present a challenge for gardeners. The internet offers abundant advice on this, but too often it is simplistic gardening myth such as scattering human hair or planting garlic.

Historically in deer control literature there have been occasional observations that deer hesitate to enter an area which looks too small or constrained for rapid escape. Finally, it came time to acknowledge and test this theory.

Green Island Preserve and the University of Minnesota Extension set about investigating this possibility through their Regional Sustainable Development Partnership (RSDP) program which provides support to community-benefit projects in partnership with private citizens and organizations. The test site was a 60 acre rewilded forest inside a small northern city. Deer pressure was heavy with resident herd numbers varying from 16-30 animals during the trial.

The first issue was defining a “small space” for testing the theory. In all the literature only one other trial of this concept could be found. It was conducted in Wisconsin with traditionally fenced spaces ranging from 15 ft by 15 ft to 21 ft by 21 ft feet during part of one summer. The Minnesota Green Island Preserve and RSDP trial chose 16 feet by 16 feet based upon the dimensions of manufactured, ridged cattle panels. These panels are 50 inches in height and 16 ft long and tend to be readily available at Fleet or Home stores even in suburban areas. If successful, their advantage would be very easy set-up and portability at a reasonable cost.

What was the result? Over 2 years of trial, this test demonstrated 95% success. Six micro-exclosures were established and planted within forested and forest edge locations in a zone of heavy deer pressure. During an observation period of 730 days, only one instance of deer browse occurred inside a micro-exclosure.

This success rate is more impressive because these fences are not a physical barrier to deer entry. They are strictly a psychological deterrent. This places them in much the same class as flashing lights, sound cannon, water spray, etc., but according to this study’s data, they’re actually more effective. All psychological deterrents have a failure rate dependent on application, monitoring, seasonality, rainfall, and more. But micro-exclosures show a low failure rate, without maintenance. If a deer breach does occur, the solution is simply to make the exclosure appear even smaller. This can be done by stretching rope across the center holding noticeable flagging. It can be lifted off when tending plants.

This is a highly promising discovery which merits further controlled testing by universities and professionals. The Minnesota Green Island Preserve and RSDP trial was specifically targeted to white tail deer predation while other ungulates present browse problems in other geographies. Rabbits were not addressed. However, until further and definitive research is conducted, citizen-scientist gardeners can contribute by testing versions of this method for themselves and adding their data to the general deer-control knowledge base. In using and testing micro-exclosures, gardeners will fare infinitely better than by spreading human hair, interplanting garlic, or buying “ultrasonic” gizmos.

This post was provided by Kent Scheer. Kent is a career sculptor with a side mission for reforestation and environmental compassion. He is the editor of three handbooks on sustainable agriculture resources and owner/ manager of a rewilded pine forest in northern Minnesota created for environmental education and awareness. You can contact Kent at kentscheer@outlook.com.